All History

"A fat person, at whatever period of life, has not a sound tissue in his body: not only is the entire muscular system degenerated with the fatty particles, but the vital organs--heart, lungs, brain, kidneys, liver, etc.,--are likewise mottled throughout, like rust spots in a steel watch spring, liable to fail at any moment. The gifted Gambetta, whom M. Rochefort styled the fatted satrap died--far under his prime--because of his depraved condition; a slight gunshot wound from which a clean man would have speedily recovered ended this obese diabetic's life. Events sufficiently convincing are constantly occuring on both sides of the Atlantic; every hour men are rolling into ditches of death because they do not learn how to live. These ditches have fictitious names--grief, fright, apoplexy, kidney troubles, heart disease, etc.,--but the true name is chronic self abuse."

Fortunately there is a considerably greater apprehension in the public mind now than a few years ago as to the evils of growing fat. The writings of Mr. Banting, an enthusiastic layman who was greatly helped by a reduction of obesity, and whose interest in his fellow men prompted him to make as widely known as possible some thirty years ago his method of cure, has done much to dispel dense ignorance concerning this topic; and in more recent years the illness of Bismarck, and his restoration through the reduction of his obesity, was also a great help to spread knowledge on this most important subject. 

The exciting cause of obesity is the ingestion of more food that the system requires, together with the weakening of the excretory organs, which results in the failure of the system to adequately throw off its waste matter. But the profound and primal cause of obesity will one day be recognized to be the use of cereal and starch foods. An obese person weighing two, four or six stone, twenty-five, fifty, or eighty pounds, or even a still larger amount, more than is natural, may be given a diet of flesh with water with or without the addition of starchless vegetables, as lettuce, watercress, tomatoes, spinach, and the like, excluding bread, pulses and potatoes, and the patient will be gradually but surely reduced to his normal weight. As soon, however, as the patient returns to his usual diet of bread and potatoes he straightway begins to increase in weight; and while an obese patient can easily be reduced eight pounds per month when placed upon a flesh diet, he will gain fully this much or more upon returning to a free use of bread and starch vegetables. If this patient who has been reduced, and who has again developed obesity, is persuaded to again adopt the exclusive flesh diet, again the reduction is sure to take place; and in the course of our practice this process has been repeated among many patients, and in a few a reduction and return to flesh has been repeated three times. It is plain from such demonstrations that without starch foods corpulency would not exist. Chemically starch foods are chiefly carbon; adipose tissue is also carbon, and it would naturally be expected that a diet of oil and the fat of animal flesh would contribute quite as much to obesity as bread and starch foods. But experience proves that such is not the case. The reason for this is not, in the present state of science, understood; it will likely be found in the fact that starch foods undergo a complicated process of digestion, whereas oils require only emulsion to render them assimilable by the system. 

The courage and strength of conviction possessed by the average family doctor is curious to behold. It will be found to be inversely to the ratio of his knowledge. The less conversant he is with this malady the greater confidence he seems to have in his opinions. During the years that we were in practice some hundreds of patients came to us for assistance in this trouble, a large number of whom were under the control of their family physician. Many of these patients came in defiance of the express orders of their physicians; and while they had assumed courage enough to disobey their orders and come to us, they needed much encouragement to enable them to proceed with any confidence. They were usually told by their medical advisers that in them it was natural to be stout, that they had "better leave well enough alone," and the direst results were prophesied in the event that they had the temerity to proceed. In point of fact these patients quite invariably experienced nothing but the happiest results. many of them came out of an interest in their personal appearance; finding their figures destroyed and their beauty going, they desired restoration to their youthful form and feature. Others, again, were annoyed at clumsiness in getting about, shortness of breath in climbing stairs, and the general awkwardness and inconvenience that result from this "too, too solid flesh." Only a small proportion of these patients came from a knowledge that obesity is a disease, that it encourages other states of inflammation and other diseases, and that its reduction is a great aid in the return of health. But while thees patients as a rule did not come to us with this expectation, it was common for them to testify to geat benefits that had resulted from their treatment. These benefits were quite frequently greater than the patient would readily admit or remember. It was our custom, with all patients beginning treatment, to take the name, age, height, weight, and a list of the infirmities, if any, from which they were suffering. These details were elicited by a series of questions, and the answers duly recorded. Out of sight out of mind is the old adage; and human beings are fortunately so conditioned that when their aches and pains have taken flight they forget not infrequently that they were ever present. many of these patients would have stoutly denied the benefit rendered but for the diagnosis taken at the beginning of treatment, and a reference to wich only would convince them of the coniditon they had been in. 

CHAPTER XVIL THE IMMORALITY OF FLESH-EATING. 

In these days of vegetarianism and theosophy a phy- sician is often met with objection on the part of patients to a diet of flesh, which objection will usually be found to be based on the conviction — a growing one through-out civilization — that it is wrong to slaughter animals, and therefore wrong to use their flesh as food. What- ever may be the ultimate decision of humanity in regard to this question, at the present time it is not infrequently a very serious one to the physician. A patient comes to him much out of health, earnestly desiring to follow the necessary course and practice the necessary self-denial to gain health, and the physician is fully impressed that the patient's digestive apparatus and general system is in such condition that flesh is well-nigh indispensable in a dietary system that will restore the patient to health, — under such circumstances this question will be found of grave importance. 

What constitutes morality in diet ? Manifestly, many animals are intended by nature to live upon other animals. To our apprehension the intention of nature, when it can be ascertained, authoritatively disposes of this matter. If it could be shown, as many physicians believe, that man is by nature omnivorous, and designed to eat flesh among other foods, this would be a conclu- sive demonstration that it was right for him to eat flesh. If, as we believe, nature intended man should subsist upon sweet fruits and nuts, there is not only no license for flesh-eating, but the reverse, — there is presumptive evidence that it is wrong to eat flesh. Physiological law must be the court of last resort in which to try this question. 

Vegetarians and others scruple at the purchase of a beef-steak on the ground that the money so expended encourages the butcher in the slaughter of the animal, and thereby identifies the one who expends the money with the slaughter. If this reason be given in earnest it should be binding, and its logic followed under all circumstances. While it is true that the purchase of a pound of beef identifies the purchaser with the slaughter of the animal, the purchase of a dozen eggs or a quart of milk as clearly identifies the purchaser with the slaughter of animals; for the reason that the laws governing the production of agricultural products are such that the farmer cannot profitably produce milk or eggs except he sell for slaughter some of the cocks and male calves, as well as those animals that have passed the productive period. True, there is no particular animal slain to produce a given quart of milk or a dozen of eggs, as there is in the production of a pound of beef-steak; but the sin is not in the slaughter of a given animal, but in the slaughter of animals, and it must therefore be acknowledged that animals are as surely slaughtered for the production of milk and eggs as for the production of beef-steak. And hence, since this is a question of ethics, we may as well be honest while dealing with it; and if an ethical student honestly refrains from the purchase of flesh because it identifies him with the slaughter of animals, there is no escaping, if he be logical and ethical, from the obligation to refuse also to purchase milk and eggs. This law applies as well to wool and leather, and to everything made from these materials; because, as before shown, agriculture is at present so conducted that the farmer cannot profitably produce wool and leather unless he sells the flesh of animals to be used as food. 

Looking at the matter in this light, almost all of us will be found in a situation demanding compromise. If a delicate patient be allowed eggs, milk, and its products, and the patient is able to digest these foods, so far as physiological needs are concerned there is no serious difficulty in refraining from the use of flesh as food; but if these ethical students hew to the line, have the courage of their convictions, accept the logic of their position, and refrain from the use of animal products altogether, there will be a breakdown very soon. There are a few isolated cases where individuals have lived upon bread and fruit to the exclusion of animal products, but such cases are rare, and usually end in disaster. 

We are, after all, in a practical world, and must bring common sense to bear upon the solution of practical problems. The subject of the natural food of man will be found treated somewhat at length in Part III. In this chapter it is designed only to point out some of the difficulties that inevitably supervene upon an attempt to live a consistent life, and at the same time refuse to use flesh on the ground that such use identifies the eater with the slaughter of animals. There seems to us good ground for the belief that fruit and nuts constituted the food of primitive man, and are the diet intended by nature for him. Remember, primitive man was not engaged in the competitive strife incident to modern life ; the prolonged hours of labour and excessive toil that are necessary to success in competitive pursuits in these times were not incidental to that life. Undoubtedly an individual with robust digestive powers, who is not called upon to expend more vitality than is natural and healthful, will have no difficulty whatever in being adequately nourished on raw fruits and nuts. When, however, a denizen of a modern city, obliged to work long hours and perform excessive toil, can only succeed in such endeavors by a diet that will give him the greatest amount of nourishment for the least amount of digestive strain, it will be found that the flesh of animals usually constitutes a goodly portion of such diet. It may be said to be a pre-digested food, and one that requires the minimum expenditure of vital force for the production of the maximum amount of nutrition. However earnest a student of ethics may be, however such a student may desire to live an ideal life, if he finds himself so circumstanced that a wife and family are dependent upon his exertions for a livelihood, and if it be necessary, in order adequately to sustain him in his work, that he shall have resort to a diet in which the flesh of animals is an important factor, there is no escape, in our opinion, from the inevitable conclusion that it is his duty to adopt that diet which enables him to meet best the obligations resting upon him. 

An invalid with no family to support, and with independent means, may nevertheless find himself in a similar situation with regard to the problem of flesh-eating. We have found many persons whose inherited vitality was small at the outset, and whose course of life had been such as to greatly weaken the digestive powers, and who when they came to us were in such a state of prostration as to require, like the competitive worker, the greatest amount of nourishment for the least amount of digestive strain ; and yet such persons have duties in life to perform, and are not privileged knowingly to pursue any course that necessarily abbreviates their life or diminishes their usefulness. The conviction is clear to us that the plain duty of persons so circumstanced is to use that diet which will best contribute to a restoration of their digestive powers and the development of a fair share of vital energy. When this result has been reached, these persons may easily be able to dispense with flesh food and even animal products, and to obtain satisfactory results from a diet of fruit and nuts. 

A true physician must make every effort to overcome the illness of his patients, and to put them on the road to a recovery of health. To our mind there is, in the solution of this problem, a clear path for the ethical student to follow. We believe that health is man's birthright, and that it becomes his bounden duty to use all efforts within his power to obtain and maintain it. We believe that sickness is a sin; that it unfits the victim for his duties in life ; that through illness our life becomes a misery to ourselves, and a burden to our fellows ; and where this result is voluntarily incurred it becomes a shame and a disgrace. Manifestly the body is intended for the use of the spirit, and its value depends upon its adaptability for such use. In the ratio that the body is liable to be invaded by disease is its usefulness impaired. The old saying, "a sound mind in a sound body," is the outcome of a perception of this truth. The saying that cleanliness is next to godliness is based upon the perception that cleanliness is necessary for the health of the body, and that the health of the body is necessary for the due expression of a godly life. When this truth is adequately understood it will be seen by the vegetarian, the theosophist, and the ethical student that health is the first requisite ; that it becomes a religious duty to create and conserve this condition, and that whatever diet, exercise, vocation, or course in life is calculated to develop the greatest degree of health is the one that our highest duty commands us to follow. In short, the favorite maxim of one of Britain's most famous statesmen might wisely be taken for the guiding principle of all : Sanitas omnia sanitas.

Important as the hot water treatment is, the meat diet is far more so. The Salisbury treatment may be said to consist of two factors : first, the practice of taking a large amount of hot water on an empty stomach ; and second, confining the patient to lean flesh, preferably beef, minced or scraped to thoroughly break down and as far as possible remove the connective tissue. The leg or ham of beef — that portion usually sold as round or buttock steak — is the part preferred. It is recommended in the case of very delicate stomachs that the fat, gristle, and like parts be removed, and that the lean flesh be run through a meat-chopper two or three times to insure a thorough breaking down of the connective tissue. This minced meat should be loosely made up into round balls from half an inch to an inch or more in thickness, and three or four inches in diameter. Let a frying-pan be made very hot, and the meat balls placed in it, shaking the frying-pan to keep the meat from burning; when the surface has been browned, turn the ball over, cover- ing the frying-pan to keep in the steam, and set it back where the meat will cook gently but continuously. It should be cooked until all the red color has disappeared. A small portion of salt, and when desired a very little pepper, may be added. All persons taking this treatment who are not too stout are advised to add fresh butter to the meat ; and when the butter is salted no further addition of salt is necessary. When preferred, the meat cakes can be placed on a common grill or broiler, turning the grill often until the red has disappeared from the center of the balls. 

Mrs. Stuart prefers a preparation of stewed meat, as follows : In preparing beef for a Salisbury steak, a considerable portion of valuable meat must be discarded. This is utilized by slow and long boiling until the value of the meat is extracted in soup. Then to one and a half pounds of the minced meat add about a pint of the meat soup, which has first been allowed to cool and the fat removed. Add a little salt and pepper, and stew over a gentle fire until the redness of the meat has disappeared. It will be found that it is not necessary to boil the meat; boiling dissipates some of the valuable elements, and distinctly damages it, but it can be thoroughly cooked without boiling. Many people prefer this method of cooking to the broiled cakes, and it affords a variety to those who care for it. 

Most persons reading these directions for the first time will think at once that such a diet would be very repulsive and cloying to the appetite. Surprising as it may seem, a majority of those who confine themselves to this food come to relish it greatly, and not particularly to miss the lack of bread or other usual foods. It has long been known that hunger is the best sauce ; and when an adequate food is furnished to a hungry man, the food is relished, digested, assimilated, and passed off, leaving the system with a good appetite when the time comes for more food. 

It will be found by all persons who try this diet that it is not difficult if they resolutely abstain from the use of all other foods. If, however, they indulge themselves at the outset by tasting, in what may seem to be trifling quantities, other and accustomed kinds of food, the appetite for the beef is very likely to vanish, and the patient will find considerable difficulty in sticking to it. Fortunately, for all those not obese and who are not taking this diet largely for effecting a reduction of their weight, it is not necessary to be wholly confined, as Dr. Salisbury recommends, to the minced beef. We have found that all the conditions that may be obtained from a strict adherence to the beef and hot water regime are obtained by the addition of some food-fruits to this diet. These fruits may be dates, stewed figs, prunes, raisins, sultanas, and — when thoroughly ripe and of good quality before drying — peaches or apricots. If too much of this fruit be eaten it will cause acidity and flatulence ; on the other hand, if those persons confining themselves to the Salisbury diet will gradually add such food-fruits, they will find a distinctly better relish with the meals, the removal of more or less longing that is inevitable with those who are eating only the meat, and a greatly improved tendency toward the removal of constipation. 

At the same time, it must be borne in mind that to some patients there appears to be nothing so easily digested, that at the same time gives anything like so much nourishment and vitality, as the pulp of lean meat; and if the addition of fruits even when made cautiously produces flatulence, heartburn, or other evidences that there is fermentation instead of digestion, to such very weak stomachs it is best to rely for the time upon beef alone, and until the stomach is so far restored that such fruits may be safely added. 

The rationale of the beef and hot water treatment is easily understood; that of the hot water is already given. Health depends upon nourishment; a food may be rich in all the elements of nutrition, and yet be valueless to a person either because it is of itself unfitted to human digestion, or because the digestion of such person has been weakened by wrong habits, or by heredity, or by both, and is thus rendered unable to get nourishment from such ill-adapted food. All persons out of health, and all whose digestion is weak, and whose nervous system has been overstrained — and this classification includes vast numbers, a great majority in civilization — are in need of a food which will give greatest nourishment for the least expenditure of vital force. The lean meat of our domestic animals, and of some kinds of game, and especially that of beef, answers this demand in a remarkable degree. A good quality of beef or mutton, roasted or broiled, to the average stomach will be found quite easy of digestion, and is more conveniently obtained than the minced meat, though flesh that has been well chopped or minced has its connective tissue largely destroyed, and this connective tissue offers the chief obstacle in the way of digestion. This can also be broken down by continuous cooking for hours in succession. A simple method of accomplishing this is to put the meat into a covered tin or copper vessel, and place this in a large stewing vessel. Insert a piece of brick, coal or like substance between the bottom of the vessel containing the meat and the bottom of the stewpan or boiler; fill with water that will surround the inside vessel but not enter it; cover also the larger vessel, bring it to a boil, and keep it gently boiling for about five hours. No water is to be placed in the vessel containing the meat; and it will be found after long cooking that the connective tissue is substantially destroyed, the meat is exceedingly tender, its juices are all retained, and many of the advantages secured that result from mincing the beef. A good way of cooking such meat, also, is to boil in an ordinary boiler with but little water until thoroughly done — from four to six hours. In whatever way meat is cooked, skin, gristle, and indigestible lumps must not be eaten; these substances are very difficult to digest, and must be avoided. 

If this food be taken only in such quantities as the needs of the system demand, it will be found to be less liable to fermentation than most foods, and persons troubled with flatulence or any other evidence of a weakened state of the stomach and bowels will find this food especially favourable to the recovery of strength and vigorous digestive power. 

All persons who are at all corpulent, having more adipose tissue or fat than is natural, will find this diet of special value; and all such will do well to exclude, until they are reduced to a normal weight, the fat portions of the meat, and refrain from the use of butter or sweet fruits. A continuous exclusive diet of lean beef in quantities barely sufficient for the needs of the systern, with the addition of stewed tomatoes or spinach and a moderate amount of lettuce and like salads, is sure to reduce almost any obese person to their normal weight. When such weight is reached, butter and oil may be gradually added to the dietary, and also the food fruits. One great advantage of a diet composed of a moderate amount of animal flesh, as beef and mutton, and a considerable portion of the food-fruits — dates, figs, prunes, sultanas, apples, etc. — is that these fruits are distinctly aperient, and overcome the tendency to constipation which is quite sure to be induced by an exclusive meat diet. When for any reason these fruits are excluded from the dietary, recourse must be had to a mild aperient. A leading symptom by which to differentiate between health and illness is the color and appearance of the skin. Persons accustomed to a free use of cereals and starchy vegetables, when out of health are quite apt to have a pale or anaemic color, and a rough and blotchy skin. All such persons who will adopt the diet herein recommended will be gratified to see in a few weeks' time improvement in their complexion. A pink, healthy hue takes the place of the pale color, and the skin becomes soft and pliable. Many persons in middle life have more or less accumulations of dandruff in the head and hair, which is sometimes so plentiful as to need brush- ing from the clothes several times a day. This condition is frequently changed by the adoption of this diet, and sometimes entirely overcome.

Order CETACEA

Cetaceans Balæna mysticetus Linn . Arctic Bowhead Whale. Ak'virk (Alaskan Mackenzie, and Coronation Gulf). 

The Bowhead Whale, the largest animal of the Arctic regions, if not directly the most important animal, on account of being the chief means of support of a number of Eskimo communities, has, through the large fleets of vessels engaged in the whaling industry, indirectly been the most responsible agent for bringing the white man's civilization into the western Arctic, with its concomitant effects upon population and fauna. Although whaling had long been prosecuted in the Bering Sea and the Arctic Ocean west of Point Barrow , the first ship wintered at Herschel Island in 1889–1890 . Later other ships wintered at Baillie Island, Langton Bay, Cape Parry, and two small schooners even wintered as far east as Victoria Island. Whaling was prosecuted independently by Eskimos from Cape Prince of Wales, Point Hope, to Cape Smyth and Point Barrow , Alaska, and east of the Mackenzie, at Warren Point, Baillie Islands, Langton Bay, and other points, before the advent of white men. The Eskimos were accustomed to pursue the whale from their skin-covered umiaks and kill them with stone-headed lances, valuing the whale for its meat and blubber and not for the "whalebone” or baleen. Nowadays there is no Eskimo whaling east of Point Barrow, and the western Eskimos use modern weapons. The whaling industry by white men has become practically dead within the past few years. One ship and one gasoline schooner, the only vessels which whaled in the Beaufort Sea, killed twelve whales apiece during the summer of 1912, but the voyages were considered unprofitable on account of the unsaleability of bone. 

• The largest number of ships which wintered at Herschel Island at one time was fourteen in 1893–1894. 

• The largest catches are said to have been 69 whales by Captain Smith in the Narwhal, 1893–1895 ; 

• 67 whales by Captain Norwood in the Balæna in 1893–1895, 

• and 64 whales by Captain Bodfish in the Beluga in a two-year voyage about the same time. At that time whales were frequently killed near Herschel Island and Baillie Islands, but now they are much less seldom seen inshore. 

A good many Bowhead Whales are killed in the spring by the Siberian natives at their whaling stations at Indian Point, Plover Bay, and East Cape. Whalers say that in the spring the Bowheads do not follow the Siberian coast farther than East Cape, but strike across from there to Point Hope, Alaska, and follow up the American coast around Point Barrow, passing Point Barrow , going to the eastward from about April 20th to June 1st. 

After the Bowheads pass Point Barrow in April and May, little is known of their movements. Whalers are apt to be met with anywhere in Amundsen Gulf in July and August, as early as ships can get out of winter quarters. Whales are sometimes seen spouting off shore in Franklin Bay early in June. In August, in the region between Cape Parry and Banks Island, the whales usually seem to be coming south along the west side of Banks Island , and going west, although they often are seen in Franklin Bay until September . Following them up , the whalers usually find whales most abundant on the “offshore ” or “pea-soup grounds” off Capes Dalhousie and Brown, where the water is rather shoal, eighteen to thirty fathoms. The whales often remain here for some time and if scared away, soon come back. Whales killed here sometimes have mud on their backs as if they had been rolling on a mud bottom , i.e. , whales which are killed without sinking. A dead whale which sinks to the bottom often brings up mud as a matter of course. Bowheads have been chased into fresh water three fathoms deep near Pullen Islands, off the mouth of the Mackenzie River. No parasites are found on Bowhead Whales, like the barnacles and “lice” found on Right Whales and Humpbacks. 

The method of Bowhead whaling is to cruise about under sail, keeping a sharp lookout from the masthead during the whole twenty four hours. Bowhead Whales are very easily frightened and are very seldom if ever seen from a steamship while the propellor is working. Furthermore, after a whale is struck by a bomb, it is extremely infrequent for another whale to be seen in the same vicinity for an hour or more, even though there may have been many in sight before. When a whale is “ raised ,” the ship lowers all its available whale -boats. Each boat usually has a ship's officer as boat header in the stern-sheets, a boat-steerer (harpooner) in the bow , and a crew of four oarsmen . A whale usually stays below the surface for a regular period, from twenty minutes to an hour or more, according to his individual peculiarity. When up, the whale moves slowly along, the top of back just above the water, sometimes just below , making a wake, every minute or two blowing up a white column of vapor to a height of from eight to twelve feet. After spouting several times the whale usually “ turns flukes, " raises his tail out of water, and dives down. After two or three risings, the boat-header can usually tell the rate of speed at which the whale is traveling, the direction of his course, and the time he is apt to stay below. The boat heads for the place of his probable reappearance, keeping a little to windward if possible. When the whale spouts again, the boat-header tries to run the boat directly across the top of the whale's head ,the most favorable chance. As the boat passes over, the boat-steerer (harpooner) in the bow thrusts one or two tonnite (or sometimes black -powder) bombs into the whale's neck with the darting -gun. The darting - gun is a heavy lance - shaft with set-gun at tip. When the point of the harpoon enters, a stiff parallel wire explodes the eight-gauge cartridge which shoots the bomb into the whale. The handle is immediately dis engaged, the barbed harpoon -head remaining in the wound, and attached to the lance -warp (rope) , of which ten fathoms are kept in a box in the bow and one hundred or more fathoms in a tub in the boat. Sometimes a shoulder -gun is used after the darting- gun, if opportunity offers. The shoulder -gun is a heavy eight-bore, shooting a long feathered tonnite bomb with no warp attached . If struck fairly in the neck vertebræ , a whale is sometimes killed instantly with one shot, but sometimes eight or ten shots are required. The whale often tows a boat a long distance if only slightly wounded, and is sometimes lost by going under a large ice - field . As soon as the whale is " struck ” by one boat, the other boats come up as soon as possible, and as the whale rises he is struck as often as possible. On small ships the whalebone baleen from the upper jaw is sometimes cut off in the water, but on the larger ships the upper portion of the whale's skull is cut off and hoisted on deck entire, and the bone removed later. Ordinarily the practice of the Bowhead whalers in recent years has been to remove only the baleen, turning the carcass with its fifty or more barrels of oil, adrift. This is a most wasteful practice, but when "bone” was high in price, a single whale might be worth $10,000 in bone, and the captains preferred not to spend a day saving a thousand dollars' worth of oil, and perhaps lose a possible second whale. The meat of the Bowhead is good, the young whale's flesh in particular being much like beef. The " blackskin ,” or muk -tok , as it is called by the Eskimo, is considered a great delicacy, being usually eaten raw by the Eskimo, and boiled fresh or pickled by the white whalers. At Point Barrow, Alaska, the " Aloe-whaling” is done principally in Eskimo skin - umiaks, and the whalebone is cut out at the edge of the floe. A male which I saw killed August 23d, 1910, in Franklin Bay, was about 57 feet long, flukes 18 feet 4 inches across, and right fin or flipper 10 feet 4 inches around outer curvature. The whale yielded 2100 pounds of whalebone, the longest slabs (from middle of jaw) being about 11 feet in length.

The development of cottonseed oil from Southern cotton plantations helped fill the void. Americans still didn’t consider oil acceptable for cooking or baking, but that didn’t stop some companies from mixing the oil with beef fat to make a “compound lard.” Swift & Co., for instance, introduced a product called Cottonsuet in 1893. Unbeknownst to consumers, manufacturers had also been sneaking cottonseed oil into butter from the 1860s on as a way of reducing costs. Indeed, here was the enduring and compelling logic of vegetable oils: they were cheaper than animal fats. Starting in the early 1930s, when the mechanized process of hulling and pressing cottonseeds came to be widely used, this and then other oils pressed from seeds and beans were simply less expensive than raising and slaughtering animals.

On this day in 1893, a student at Harvard Medical School made the first entry in a ledger he would keep for the rest of his long career. Elliott Joslin examined a frail young Irish girl, who was suffering from diabetes. Long before he became one of the world's leading authorities on diabetes, he understood the importance of careful documentation. Keen observation of his patients helped him develop a novel approach to the treatment of diabetes. He prescribed a strict diet that regulated blood sugar levels and helped patients manage their own care. The introduction of insulin in 1921 confirmed the effectiveness of Joslin's approach. Elliott Joslin saw 15 patients a day until a week before his death in 1962, at age 93.

Unlike many other men who made Boston a center of medical innovation, Elliott Joslin was born in Massachusetts — in the town of Oxford, 40 miles west of Boston. The son of a wealthy shoe manufacturer, Elliott was an unusually focused, driven young man. He attended Yale College, graduated at the top of his Harvard Medical School class, and served an internship at Massachusetts General Hospital. After additional study in Europe, he returned to Boston in 1898 and opened a private office in the house his father had bought in the Back Bay.

Although Joslin had been interested in diabetes since medical school, he began his career as a general practitioner. Physicians who specialized in one particular disease were still rare in American medicine, and it would be almost 20 years before Elliott Joslin emerged as one of the most influential people in the study and treatment of diabetes.

Mary Higgins's case sparked his interest and convinced him of the need to chart in detail the course of a patient's illness. Joslin began keeping a diabetic ledger in 1893; Mary Higgins was the first entry in the first volume. He documented every patient he treated for the next 70 years. Eventually, his ledgers filled 80 volumes and became the central registry for diabetes in the United States, the first system for recording patient diabetes data outside of Europe.

"In 1893, he sailed on the Emily Schroeder, which traveled through the Bering Strait to the Inupiat(North Alaskan) community of Point Hope(Tikigaq). The purpose of the expedition was to trade with the Inupiat along the North Alaskan coast. Members of the expedition built a small trading post near the community of Point Hope and settled down for the long arctic winter. It was Klengenberg's first exposure to the Arctic and it is apparent in his autobiography that he relished the northern life. During the winter of 1893/1894, Klengenberg spent most of his time with the young Inupiat men from the village, whose company he preferred "over the dull adults for whom I cooked at the trading post"(Klengenberg 1932:90). Klengenberg also courted and eventually married a young Inupiat woman, Gremnia(Qimniq), with whom he had eight children.

"In summertime, the boats plied the Beaufort sea hunting bowheads. Klengenberg had planned to return immediately to Point Hope, but he could not resist the temptation of signing on as a whaler aboard the Mary D. Hume. He thus spent the summer whaling in the Beaufort Sea. At one point, the ship anchored off Banks Island to take on fresh meat and Klengenberg was among those who disembarked. While walking on the tundra, he spotted footprints and concluded they had been made the same summer. Klengengberg was excited at the possibility that there were unknown bands of Inuit on Banks Island. 

Being possessed of much more than the average amount of ability and enthusiasm, he was chosen by Moses Norton, the energetic Governor of Fort Prince of Wales, to go out with the Indians into the vast, and as far as that was then known, limitless, territory west of Hudson Bay, in order to find and prospect the place where the native copper had been found which the Indians often brought with them to the fort.

During the year preceding his departure on his first expedition, he had had an excellent opportunity to perfect himself in a knowledge of astronomical and geodetic work, for in the summer of 1768 the annual ship had brought William Wales, F.R.S., and Joseph Dymond from London, commissioned by the Royal Society to remain at Fort Prince of Wales throughout the ensuing year in order to observe the transit of Venus over the sun on the 3rd of June 1769.[2] They remained at the fort until the ship left again for London in August of the following year (1769). Mr. Wales was one of the foremost astronomers, mathematicians, and litterateurs of his age. Shortly after his return to England he was appointed to accompany Captain Cook on his voyage around the world in the Resolution in 1772-74, and again on his last voyage in 1776-79. His presence for more than a year among the little band of white men assembled at this remote fur-trading post on Hudson Bay must have had a helpful influence in preparing Hearne for his great explorations overland to the Arctic Ocean. This book is an account of three journeys which he undertook in rapid succession into the country west of Hudson Bay and north-west of Fort Prince of Wales in search of the fabled bed of copper ore, from which pure copper could be loaded directly into ships at trifling expense. In the first and second journeys he was obliged to turn back before reaching his destination, but in the third journey all difficulties were finally overcome, and he was taken to and shown the "mine" of copper.

It has been my good fortune to travel over parts of the same country through which Hearne had journeyed one hundred and twenty-three years before me, and into which no white man had ventured during the intervening time. The conditions which I found were just such as he describes, except that the inhabitants had changed. The Chipewyan Indians, whom he found occupying advantageous positions everywhere as far as the north end of Dubawnt Lake, had disappeared, and in their places the country had been occupied by scattered bands and families of Eskimos, who had almost forgotten the ocean shores of the north, from which they had come. They were depending entirely, for food and clothing, on the caribou, which they killed on the banks of the inland streams and lakes. Traces of old Indian encampments were seen in a few of the scattered groves that are growing along the banks of Dubawnt and Kazan Rivers, but these camps had evidently not been occupied for many years.[3]

It has been stated that if the waste products of the world had been saved they would sustain the present population for more than a hundred years. Foreign countries give more attention than america to saving the waste. But as the population of the united states increases, and as processes of manufacture are developed, discoveries are made which turn the waste of former products into useful articles of commerce. Glycerin, wood acid, crude petroleum, and even the fine dust from anthracite coal have an importance to-day that they did not have formerly. Cotton-seed oil is a most conspicuous instance of an article once thrown aside as a nuisance. Originally it was only a by- product in the manufacture of meal from the seed ; and even after it was discovered that meal could be made, it was a question what should be done with the oil. That question has been answered in various ways. What was garbage in 1860 was a fertilizer in 1870, cattle food in 1880, and table food and many things else, in 1890. 

A small quantity of the oil is made in england, but it is inferior to the american article because the seed comes from egypt or india. The american cotton parts with its fiber more readily. The best oil is made from seed belonging to the southern upland cotton, that from the seaboard having a darker color. The exports are chiefly from new york and new orleans, and the greater part goes to france, italy, and the netherlands. There was a constant increase of exports between 1871 and 1884, when over 6,000,000 gallons, valued at $3,000,000, were exported. Since 1884 the export has rapidly declined, only 2,000,000 gallons, worth $1,300,000, being exported of late years, because the demand in the united states has increased. Nine tenths of the american product enters into the composition of foods, chiefly for salad and cooking oils and for the making of refined lard. 

The latter use is the most important of all. Nearly forty years ago the oil was mixed with lard for use in cold climates so that the stiffening point would be several degrees lower. Lard was also prepared with this oil for the israelites, whose religion does not permit the use of any product of the hog. The refined lard of today is made of refined packer's lard, pure dressed-beef fat, and pure refined cotton-seed oil. The consistence of the beef fat is overcome by the oil. Three fourths of the lard in use to-day contains from ten to twenty-five per cent of the oil, and nearly all of it is sold as oil-lard. It has been attacked by producers of hog lard, but investigations have shown that the new lard is quite as wholesome as the old. 

Table oil often bears the brand of olive oil when it is really cotton-seed oil mixed with a small proportion of the olive. Sometimes the oil is taken to france and italy and mixed there, but more often the mixture is made in this country. So closely is olive oil imitated, both as to taste and color, that only an expert knows the difference. In the earlier days of making cotton-seed oil the white oil brought a higher price than the yellow ; but today the yellow oil is the more expensive. Cheaper processes of manufacture have lowered the price and encouraged the use of the yellow oil in making a substitute for butter. 

Cotton oil ranks next to sperm oil and above lard oil for illu- minating purposes, and it may be burned in any lamp used for either. Mixed with petroleum, it increases the freedom of burning ; but this requires a change in the wick. As a lubricating oil cotton-seed is useless, because it is half way between the drying and the non-drying. For the same reason it can not be used for paints, for wood filling, or for leather dressing. It has some use as a substitute for vaseline and similar products. The oil enters into the production of laundry and fancy soaps and soaps for woolen mills. The american sardines, properly known as young shad and herring, are put up with this oil, and the use of it extends so far that nearly all the real sardines of europe are now treated in the same way. The oil forms an emulsion in medicine and a substitute for cod-liver oil. On the market the crude oil is known as either prime, or off quality, or cooking. There are also the white summer, the yellow winter, and the white winter. All these, except the crude, bring an average of about fifty cents a gallon in the wholesale market. After the oil has left the seeds, they become food for stock in the shape of oil cake, while the ashes from the hulls make a fertilizer for root crops. 

The first attempt to extract oil from cotton seed was made in Natchez, Miss. , in 1834. The machinery of the mill was of the most primitive kind, the pressure being given by wedges. Failure attended this effort, and also an effort in 1852 with improved machinery. In 1855 cotton seed began to have a commercial value. Small mills were established, and the prospects for developing the industry were good until tlie breaking out of the civil war cut off the supply of seed. Directly after the war, in 1866, there were only seven mills in the whole country. Three of them were in new orleans, one in providence, one in Cincinnati, one in Memphis, and one in New York. In 1870 there were twenty-six mills ; in 1880, forty- five ; and in 1890, two hundred and twenty-five all but two being in the southern states, as follows : alabama, thirty ; arkansas, twelve ; florida, three ; georgia, thirty-nine ; louisiana, fifteen ; mississippi, twenty-three ; north carolina, twenty ; south carolina, thirty-four ; tennessee, twenty; texas, twenty-seven. The highest capacity of any of the mills is 320 tons daily ; and for all the mills, 7,636 tons daily, or 2,367,160 tons annually. None of them are operated on full time, and most of them run only three or four months during the height of the cotton season. The mills are of all sizes, and they range from $5,000 to over $250,000 in value. The output of cotton-seed products was valued at $600,000 in 1860, $2,205,000 in 1870, $7,691,000 in 1880, and nearly $22,000,000 in 1890. Since that date the product has fallen off. The details for 1890 were : 28,000,000 gallons of crude oil ; 17,000,000 pounds of cotton batting ; 283,000 tons of oil cake ; 378,000 tons of hulls, ash, soap-stock, and other by products ; and $2,853,000 of enhanced value in refining the oil and manufacturing the soap. The southern states produced 2,870,417 tons of cotton seed in 1880, of which barely one eighth was crushed in the mills. The yield of seed during the past five years has been as high as 3,600,000 tons ; but only one fifth of it reached the mills. The american cotton- seed oil company, formerly known as the cotton trust, owns the entire capital stock of ninety-five factories, a small portion of which are not in operation. The factories include not only crude- oil mills, but mills for the production of fertilizers, soap, and the other products. The total business for the year ending november 1, 1889, the best in the history of the mills, was about $25,000,000. An improved method of crushing gave better results than for any previous year. At first the oil was transported from the mills in barrels, but now a great saving is effected by the use in tank cars. When the season is not dry the seed is rich in oil, and it yields readily thirty-five or more gallons to the ton. An unfavorable season reduces the yield to thirty-one gallons. When the seed is well stored and properly ventilated, it will keep for a year ; it is liable to become rancid in the hold of a vessel. If stored long in bulk, it becomes superheated and liable to spontaneous combustion. These facts prevent exportation in large quantities. 

The cotton plant yields an average of nine hundred and fifty pounds of seed to each bale of cotton. The price of seed has been as high as seventeen dollars a ton, but there is no profit to the millers if they pay much over twelve dollars. A sharp competition among them led to the forming of an association of the mills in 1878, which was the forerunner of the american cotton-seed oil trust. The southern states are now divided into districts, each one supplying certain mills, and keeping a uniform price for the seed. The bulk of the supply is obtained from plantations immediately upon the southern rivers, because the seed can be transported at little cost. The mills are also located upon the rivers. Once landed at the mills, the seed is conveyed in an elevator to a screen, or cylindrical sifter, where it is shaken until it is free from dust and sand. Then it is blown against another screen to remove stones, iron, and other foreign substances that might injure the rollers. A second elevator carries the seed to the loft, where an- other sifter separates the seed proper from the bolls or outside hulls of the cotton bloom. No matter how close the picking may have been, the bolls still have cotton sticking to them, and they are dropped into a gin to remove the lint. This is known as " crapo cotton, " the only variety of linter produced in the mills. The seed having fallen through the screen, is carried along another screen or gutter directly over the gins. They drop through holes in the screen upon the gins ; but when the box above the gin is full the hole is closed automatically, and the screen carries the seed forward to the next box, thus keeping all the boxes full. The gins differ from cotton gins in having one hundred saws instead of sixty. The saws are but half an inch apart and the teeth are very firmly set. The problem of wholly removing the lint, save by chemical process, has not yet been solved. Once thoroughly separated from all foreign substances dust, bolls, and cotton the seed is conveyed to the roller, a revolving cylinder containing twenty-four knives and four back knives, which cuts the hulls from the kernels. This process was formerly carried on by grindstones. The hulls go upstairs, where they are again treated to find such kernels as may still be clinging to them, after which they are sold or used as fuel in the furnace of the mill. Only half of them are needed for this purpose, the other half being sold as food for cattle. The ashes of the hulls make an excellent lye for soap or for the refining of the oil. The kernels are conveyed to rollers, where they are crushed very fine. They are thence removed to the heaters, being agitated all the time so as to give an equal exposure and allow the oil to be more readily extracted. The kernels are then placed in woolen bags packed between horse-hair mats, backed with leather, and having a fluted surface inside to allow the oil to escape more freely. The hydraulic pressure, furnished by the oil itself instead io8 the popular science monthly. Of by water, is from one hundred and fifty to two hundred and fifty tons. The bags are in the press about fifteen minutes, the oil run- ning out and the dry kernels remaining behind in a solid cake the oil cake of commerce. This product is of a rich golden color, quite dry, and of a sweet and oily taste. When used for food it is ground to the consistence of corn meal, and it is known as cotton-seed meal. A comparison of the number of pounds of flesh produced by several kinds of food is as follows : cotton-seed cake, forty-one pounds ; bran, thirty-one pounds ; peas, twenty- two pounds ; corn, twelve pounds ; rye, eleven pounds. The number of pounds of fat produced by the several foods are these : cotton-seed cake, fifty-seven pounds; bran, fifty-four pounds; peas, fifty pounds; corn, sixty-eight pounds; rye, seventy-two pounds ; hay, fifty pounds. It is claimed that cotton-seed cake fed to cows gives a rich and plentiful supply of milk. The oil, having been pumped into the oil room, is treated with caustic soda and constantly stirred. A deposit falls to the bottom of the kettle and the refined oil is turned off. It averages about eighty-two per cent of the crude oil. The deposit, known as soap stock, sells readily to soap manufacturers, or it is used by the mill itself in the manufacture of soap. Much of it is sent to foreign countries. The oil is occasionally refined over again to remove wholly a slightly bitter flavor of the seed which reduces the culinary value. It will be noticed that the products of the seed are (1) oil, both the crude and the refined ; (2) oil cake ; (3) lint ; (4) hulls ; (5) soap stock ; (6) glycerin. One gallon of crude cotton-seed oil will yield three pounds and a half of glycerin, but thus far only a small amount has been made. The use of the seed for these several purposes has been of great benefit to the southern states. Their output is constantly increasing, while the supply of petroleum in the oil fields of pennsylvania and elsewhere appears to be decreasing. The world was greatly excited when petroleum was discovered. But the discovery of cotton-seed oil has been so gradual that the importance of it has not been realized until lately. This brief statement of what is being done to-day with an article that was going to waste a generation ago must lead every student of economy to ask, "are there not other waste products of the present time that will be used a generation hence, and thus not only increase the comfort of living but also decrease the expense?"

These maps show trends in the export flow of glucose from United States ports to the world from 1890 to 1910. Exporters shipped glucose (or “grape-sugar”) by the tens of millions of pounds throughout the later 1800s. The trade grew from three export ports in 1890 (Boston, New York, and Detroit) to six in 1910; it expanded from five global regional destinations to seven. In terms of quantity, the exports grew fifteen-fold from about 46 million to 728 million pounds in 1910. Some of the more notable trends are the increases in shipment to various South American countries by the early 1900s and shipments to new Asian markets beginning in 1905. The United Kingdom was such a large trading partner with the U.S. for glucose that their records offered more precision and, thus, the maps show direct flows to the UK while showing aggregated export streams to regions (Northern Europe, Southern Europe, South America) with less specificity in record keeping.

1. Because trade records provide a wide range of quantities per year, for the sake of reader legibility the maps represent proportions. For example, an arrow five-hatch-marks wide is five orders of magnitude greater than an arrow with one hatch mark, while the width of the five-hatch arrow is five times the width of the one-hatch arrow. Readers can thus view the maps to gain a sense of growth in export markets, relative quantities to various parts of the world, and sense of scale in the global marketplace for supposed adulterants.

2. The maps derive from government trade statistics that listed departure ports (export locations) and final destinations (import locations), but not together. For instance, while we know manufacturers shipped x pounds of glucose from New York in 1890, we do not know where, specifically, that specific quantity ended up. Therefore, the maps show the commodities shipped from individual U.S. ports to meet in the Atlantic before dispersing to final destinations.

3. In general, but not consistently, the government statistics used to construct theses maps documented foreign imports by country. Thus, in creating these maps the countries were aggregated into regions such as Northern Europe, Southern Europe, South America, Central America, Africa, and Asia. On the export side, various cities were aggregated into regions based on geographical proximity. The full data sets show specific nations.